CHAPTER
II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Definition
of Speaking
According to Harmer (1991: 46-47) states that when the two people are
engaged in talking to each other we can be sure that they in general way to
suggest that a speaker makes a define decision to address someone. Speaking may
be forced on him in the way but we still say that he wants or intends to speak,
otherwise he would keep silent.
According to Maybin (1992: 56) says that communication is an exchange between people,
knowledge, information, ideas, options, feeling so there must be concept,
ideas, in the fellow speaker of what they are going to say. The speakers have a
basic competence in communication their ideas. The able to communicate their
ideas, the students will be given opportunity to practice their English. According to
Micheal (1998: 103) language is a symbolic system used by communicators to
construct and convey information. Good languages developed by a system, set of
rules followed by the wearer.
According to Nunan (1991: 47) Speaking is one of four skills of English.
It can help people to understand something from
other interlocutors of language. Speaking will be focus for the first section
on speaking. It involves fluent and accuracy expression meaning, the exercising
of pragmatic, or communicative, competence and the observance of the rules of
appropriate. Communication is a collaboration venture in which the
interlocutors negotiate meaning in order to achieve their communication.
According to Widdowson (1985: 57) that speaking is
an oral communication that gives information involves two elements, they
are; the speaker who gives the message
and the listener who receives
the message in the world, the communication involves the productive skill of
listening. And he also states
that an act of communication through speaking is commonly perform in face to
face interaction and occur as a part of dialogue or rather than form or verbal
exchange.
From definition above, the writer concludes that speaking is a form to
say or talk something with expressing of ideas, opinions, views and description
to other for getting response or way of conveying message in order to make
understanding of wishes to other and to contribute to the other. To do speaking
activities, it must involve the speaker and the listener or
only speaker involved.
2.2 The Elements of Speaking
In speaking skill, some specific elements have strong correlation with
this skill, it is consist of;
a. Pronunciation
According to Brown (1981:
8) states “pronunciation is the sound that the speaker can imitate
from others. In this case, a listener can imitate when he is listening to
others”. He continuous that language user can imitate from others. In this
case, a listener can imitate from the speaker and then say same thing to others
listeners.
According to Broughton
(1988: 49) states that “pronunciation is way to sound the words of which to
give its meaning”. He continuous that in teaching pronunciation, the teacher
has to repeat the sounds on the pronunciation of a word until the students can
get the perfect one.
According to Harmer (1991: 11)
points out pronunciation as how to say a word in which is made of sound, stress
and intonation. Some important points on pronunciation such as sounds, stress,
and rhythm, and intonation will be discussed and it is consist of:
a.
Sound
One their own the sound of language may well meaningless. If you said
/t/ (the line show that this is phonetic script) a few times, e.g. tu, it will
not mean very much English. Neither will be sounds /k/, /a/, or /s/ but if we
put all these are sound together a certain order we and up the word catch and
does mean something.
b.
Stress
Stress is a feature of word not only when the words construct
phonemically minimal pair partner, but also in giving shape to a word as spoken.
c.
Intonation
Edinburg (1986: 164) Intonation is the “tunes” or melody” of English Intonation is clearly important item and
component user of language recognize what meaning it has and can change the
meaning of word they through using it in different ways, when we taught English
language, students need it use rhythms and stress correctly if they are understood.
2.3 The
Categories of Speaking
Walter (1984: 54) classify speaking in two categories as follows:
a. Speaking
informatively
By informative speaking, we mean speaking appropriates to situation in the audiences are not host line in the speakers’ ideas in which
the speaker need only to present these ideas with maximum clarify and
vividness.
Walter explain about speaking informative as follows: an informativel
speech gives an audience more information about something than they already
have. In order to be effective informational speakers need to accomplish four
tasks:
1)
Make
the listener wants to learn more about the topic.
2)
Communicative
the internal clearly and understandably and not “overload” listeners with
information.
3)
Stress
the key points.
4)
Find
the way to involve the members if the audiences in the presentation.
2.
Speaking persuasively
Walter states that persuasive is appropriate to stimulate in which the
speaker wishes to change or heighten the attitude belief values or behavior of
an audience. Walter (1984: 56) also describe about persuasive speaking as
follows: the goal of persuasive speech is to modify the though, feeling or
actions of an audience.
2.4
The Kinds of Speaking
Speaking is commonly
divided into two kinds namely speaking performance and speaking competence. In
this research the writer will explain them further.
a. Speaking Performance
According to Martin
H. Manser (1991: 306) state that performance is the person’s process or manner
of a play. Therefore we may conclude that speaking performance is the way of
one’s manner in speaking. Which is assessed through how the fluency and
accuracy are. Marcel (1978: 78) distinguishes the outlined of accuracy and
fluency. According to him that accuracy is the manner of people in using
appropriate words and the pattern of sentences while fluency is someone ways of speaking dealing
with how to procedure words in certain period of times without missing any main
words on their speech.
b. Speaking Competence
According to Martin
H. Manser (1991: 80) state that competency is having the ability, skill and
knowledge to do something. Then, through this basic definition, we also may
conclude that speaking competency is the ability of someone to speak which is
supported with adequate skill and knowledge and it is not assessed how it is
delivered.
For further
information, we somewhat confuse. Therefore, we have to differentiate between
competency and performance. According to Savignon (1988: 9) state that there is
a theoretical defence between competence and performance. Competence is defined
as presumes underlying ability, and performance as the overt manifestation of
that ability. Competence is what one knows. Performance is what one does. Only
performance can be developed, maintained, and evaluated.
2.5
The Characteristics of The Success in
Speaking
According to Arthur (2003: 120),
speaking for learner is not easy, at least four criterias should be covered
by the learner in speaking activity, as follos as:
a. Learner talks a lot
As much as possible the period of time
allotted to the activity is in fact occupied by learner talk. This way seems
obviously but often must time is taken up by teachers talk.
b. Participants is even
Classroom discussion is not dominated by
monitory of talkative participants, they get a chance to speak, and
contribution is fairly and evenly distributed.
c. Motivation is high
Learners are able to speak because they are
interested in the topic and
have something new to say about it, or because they want contribution to
achieve task objective
d. Language is an acceptable level
Learner expresses
themselves in utterance that is relevance easily comprehensible to each other,
and acceptable.
2.6
Speaking
as The Language
Skill
According
to Chastain (1976: 333) speaking is a productive skill, its development is
undertaken after the receptive skill of listening comprehension, perhaps of
reading and is always somewhat behind that of the receptive skill. Speaking
is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more
complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing
words.
According to Elizabeth
Blount (2005: 36) There are four criteries used to mark the speaking test are: Communicative
ability and content this criterion refers to the candidate’s ability to express
opinions and information. It also refers to the candidate’s ability to initiate
and respond to questions appropriately and their ability to take an active part
in the interaction. Pronunciation and fluency this criterion refers to the
candidate’s ability to produce comprehensible language and includes aspects
such as the production of individual sounds, stress patterns, amount of
hesitation and accent. Lexical accuracy and range this criterion refers to the
candidate’s accurately and appropriate use of vocabulary to communicate in the
speaking test. It also refers to the candidate’s ability to cope with
vocabulary problems encountered during the test and the ability to use
circumlocution. Grammatical accuracy and range this criterion refers to the
range and accuracy of the grammatical structures which the candidate uses
during the speaking test.
2.7
Some
Strategies for Developing Speaking Skill
According to Nurdaya (2012: 8) in her research,
some strategies for developing skill are:
a. Using minimal responses
According to Nurdaya (2012: 8) in her research, to
increase the language learner how have trouble in speaking so that they can
participate in oral communication and is not be a listener while the other do
the talking, using minimal response is one of strategies to grow up the language
learner although they do not have many vocabulary by give topic or question to
the silent learner which they can answer
with using minimal reponses, the minimal response such as “yeah”, “no”, “yes”,
“ummm”, and many other responses which people can show that they are
interesting or lack interest of that topic of speaking or what another speaker
saying. By using minimal responses the learner could focus on the other saying
without having to simultaneously plan a response
b.
Recognizing
scripts
According to Nurdaya (2012: 9) in her research, using recognizing scripts
can help the beginner speaking by make a classification about every
communication situation with predictable set of spoken exchanges such as
greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, request and many other scripts,
by using scripts the learner could be a active speaker because they know and
could prediction the answer from the question in a conversation, the
instructors or the teachers must give many example script in different
situation so that the learner can develop their speaking ability and give more
practice using the script.
c.
Using
language to talk about language
According
to Rustan (2004: 10) in his research, some strategies in speaking ability are
understanding the question, asking for clarification, giving an organizing
answer, asking question correctly and
playing rules.
According to Nurdaya (2012: 9) in her research,
using
language to talk language is a method which the teachers or the instructors to resolve the
problem when the learner faced the problem such misunderstanding between the
learner and the other in communication so that can make the learner become shy
or embarrassed, the learner does not understand the speaker says, when they
realize a conversation their partner could not understand them so that the
learner does not want to speak again, to overcome this situation the teachers
or the instructors have key position to clarify that misunderstanding and
clarification something can occur in any types of conversation and in any level
of language skill and give motivation so
that the student will have confidence in communication in various situation in
any where.
d.
Understanding the question correctly
According to Nurdaya (2012: 10) in her research,
the foreign speaker sometimes speaks quickly, it is difficult for the learner to
understanding the speaker talk. The listeners have to know the different about
direct question, indirect question, requests and confirming question, example:
1) What
is his name? – Direct question (Direct questions are the normal question)
2) Do
you know what his name is? – Indirect question(Indirect questions are polite
then direct questions and their forms are longer than the normal direct
question)
3) Would
you like to tell me your phone number? – request sentences (using to request something)
4) You
are going to study economics, are you? – confirming sentences (using to
confirming something)
e.
Asking for clarification
According to Nurdaya (2012: 10) in her research,
asking clarification need to clarify the meaning of the question or statements
in conversations which we do not understand, example:
1) Speaker:
could you tell me where is department store near from here ?
2) Listener:
I do not catch that, could you repeat the question please ?
We can
clarify the meaning of specific words or phrase we do not understand, for
example, we say sorry, I do not know what you mean ? and we can say “would you mind to explain
again ?
f.
Giving an organizing answer
According to Nurdaya (2012: 11) in her research,
we have to organize detailed answer so as clear as we can so that listener
could understand our question or our statements, before beginning to answer the question, it is possible
to comment on it by saying, if you use this strategy, it will give you a little
more time to prepare an organized answer.In organizing answer,it may be useful
as in writing to begin a sentence or phrase that gives a summary of the main points
that we are going to talk about.
g.
Asking question correctly
According to Nurdaya (2012: 11) in her research,
the question needs answer clearly and correctly so that we could transferring
our aim our statement, with the clearly and the correctly there is no
misunderstanding between the speaker and the listener. We can check the speaker’s understanding and we need to develop our confidence in
forming correct question.
h.
Playing Role
According to Nurdaya (2012: 11) in her research playing
role could helpful to increase speaking skill because when you playing role you
could be the listener and the speaker in the same time, there is interaction
between the other characters.
To play our role well, we have to understand some things are like :
1.
Who
our characters is ?
We might decide that this our character is a tourist,
business person or as a student. We can make the situation more realistic by
giving some information about our character. For example, if we decide we are
tourist, we could say : we have just arrived form indonesia and this is the first time coming in this country.
2.
What
our characters needs ?
We need to get all the information required on the
information, when we have finished, there may be an opportunity for us to ask
addition question.
3.
What
relationship our character has with the character played by the speaker ?
As
in most service encounter we are strangers. As a result, your language needs to
reflect this. When the speaker answer our question, we must listen and respon
appropriate the speaker’s answer influences our response. For example:
Listener
: How many different levels do you have in your toefl courses ?
Speaker
: Well, we have got a level for everybody, beginners, intermediate and advance.
Listener
: That is good. I am interested in the beginners’ course. Could you tell me
when the course are told ?
2.8 The Relationship of The Other
Abilities and Speaking Skill
According to
Green and Petty (1978: 9) a teacher who thoughtfully recognize the
interrelationship of language skills may well discover that a reading problem
really hinge upon in sufficient oral language base.
Since speaking is a part of the four language skills such
as speaking, reading, writing and listening) its relationship cannot be
neglected in developing speaking skill itself.
However, in the teaching of language skills, interrelationship are basic
importance. Clearly, in teaching foreign language a teacher must realize the
interrelatedness of the language skill. For example, in teaching reading to a
child or teenager, without recognizing the importance of listening and speaking
skill a teacher will find more difficulties. So the of skill is highly correlated
to the other skills in establishing the mastery of language skills, especially
in speaking.
2.9 The Teacher Role In Speaking Ability
According to Rustan (2004: 16) in his
research the teacher’s role in giving material is very important. Their way
using material can encourage student’s spirit to learn. According to Nurdaya (2012: 11) in her research,
sometimes the teacher give the wrong teaching method to their students, they
have to know the best method in teaching so that the learners interest in
studying the language.
According to Nurdaya (2012: 11) in her research
also, if many teaching methods can be used by the teacher to increase speaking
ability such:
a.
Giving some topic of discussion
According to Nurdaya (2012: 11) in her research,
giving discussion could make students more active in the class, giving some
topics making the student looking for appropriate of the material. Choosing
interesting topic is really important for make a classroom situation lively.
b.
Giving students more listening exercise
According to Askar (2005: 16) in his
research the improving of the ability of listening comprehension will indicate
support to the improvement of the quality of speaking. Listening a foreign
conversation or foreign song makes the learner know the pronunciation of the
words.
c.
Teaching English using role play
According to Rizki (2011: 4) Role play in the process
of learning English will be fun and can be effective.
Technique
of role play in the learning process is used to learn about the introduction of
feelings and issues facing students, and to develop problem solving skills.
Role play techniques aimed at solving problems concerning human relationships,
particularly those involving student life and to motivate students to pay more
attention to the content being taught. Role
playing is a simulation of the behavior of people who played, which aims to
train students in real situations; train intensively oral language practice,
and provide the opportunity for students to develop communication skills.
d.
Using storytelling
According
to Nining (2011: 13) in her research “Stories engage the student’s imaginations and hold their interest,
especially if there are pictures to go with the story. Through
picture presentation, people are able to reach
outside their minds”. Storytelling makes the learner feel like playing, through
listening to stories students develop their vocabulary and grammar knowledge,
which improves their fluency in verbal expression.
According to Nurdaya (2012: 13) in her research,
following are steps that will enable teachers to
success in using storytelling in the language classroom such:
a.
The teacher decides whether to read,
retell, or create a story.
b.
The teacher should adjust his/her own
language to that of the students.
c. Set
the scene before beginning the story by showing picture of the main characters
d. Bring
the characters to life by giving a short description of them.
e. Read
or tell the story clearly with appropriate intonation by showing pictures.
f. Accompany
the reading with appropriate gesture to make it clearer.
g. Let
students follow the action and gestures. Later, they can do them on their own
as they retell the story in their own word.
h. Read
or tell the story many times or let students retell it, first to a partner and
then to the class.
There are so many teaching methods in
studying except the method above, that all depend on the teacher creativity and
the system of the school itself.
